Das “mercadorias-moedas” aos empréstimos para o Covid: África e desigualdade global, passado e presente
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.11606/issn.2316-9141.rh.2023.203632Palavras-chave:
África, desigualdade, Covid-19, humanidades, Ciências Sociais, Resposta à pandemiaResumo
Este artigo enfoca a questão da África e das desigualdades globais, unindo a pesquisa do passado com a experiência do presente. Argumenta que quadros de endividamento e desigualdades crescentes têm caracterizado a relação do continente africano com a globalização em tempos de crise socioeconômica estrutural. Isso já era verdade no início do período moderno e pode ser visto novamente no quadro macroeconômico dos dois anos da pandemia de covid-19. Compreender a resposta à pandemia por meio de uma perspectiva econômica estrutural e de longa duração abre novos caminhos de interpretação e mostra a importância das perspectivas das Ciências Humanas e sociais na formação das respostas à pandemia. Abordagens históricas comparativas, continuidades socioeconômicas e crítica ao poder fornecido por sujeitos situados fora da área de STEM (ciência, tecnologia, engenharia e matemática) se mostram vitais para moldar uma compreensão mais holística do período da pandemia e de como responder a futuras pandemias.
Downloads
Referências
Referências bibliográficas
Akinde, Tobi. Soja go, soja come: impacts of the covid-19 pandemics on everyday workers in Ibadan & Lagos, 2021. Disponível em: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HDiVZ1i9utg. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
Alakija, Ayoade. Africa is being punished by richer nations in the covid battle. Financial Times, 8 dez. 2021. Disponível em: https://www.ft.com/content/12924b55-679d-4b31-b2d4-596f16dd6f4a. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
AMIN, Samir. L’Afrique de l’ouest bloquée. Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit, 1971.
ARAUJO, Ana Lucia. Did Rodney get it wrong? Europe underdeveloped Africa but enslaved people were not always purchased with rubbish. African Economic History, 50, n. 2, número especial, Walter Rodney’s How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, 2022. https://analuciaaraujo.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Araujo.pdf
BENNETT, Herman L. African kings and black slaves: sovereignty and dispossession in the early modern Atlantic world. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018.
CARDOSO, Carlos; GREEN, Toby. How Africa can take this moment to end a 500-year-old economic model. African Arguments, 25 jun. 2020. Disponível em: https://africanarguments.org/2020/06/how-africa-can-take-this-moment-to-end-a-500-years-old-economic-model/. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza (Flu): 1918. Pandemic (H1N1 virus). 2019a. Disponível em: https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/1918-pandemic-h1n1.html. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza (Flu): 1957-1958. Pandemic (H2N2 virus). 2019b. Disponível em: https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/1957-1958-pandemic.html. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
Climate and Development Knowledge Network. Economic recovery from covid-19: prospects for sub-Saharan Africa. 1º fev. 2022. Disponível em: https://cdkn.org/story/economic-recovery-covid-19-prospects-sub-saharan-africa. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
DRAYTON, R. The Caribbean origins of how Europe underdeveloped Africa. African Economic History, 50, n. 2, 2022, número especial, Walter Rodney’s How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. No prelo.
EBOH, Camillus. Around 20% of Nigerian workers lost jobs due to covid-19 – stats office. Reuters, 11 set. 2021), https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/around-20-nigerian-workers-lost-jobs-due-covid-19-stats-office-2021-09-21/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
EWEPU, Gabriel. Coalition set to mobilize Nigerians to resist gas, fuel hikes, electricity tariffs. Vanguard, 16 jan. 2022. Disponível em: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2022/01/coalition-set-to-mobilise-nigerians-to-resist-gas-fuel-hikes-electricity-tariffs/. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
FAZI, Thomas; GREEN, Toby. Covid has created a capitalist nightmare. UnHerd, 2022c. Disponível em: https://unherd.com/2022/02/covid-has-created-a-capitalist-nightmare/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
FAZI, Thomas; GREEN, Toby. Has the great Barrington declaration been vindicated? UnHerd, 2022a. Disponível em: https://unherd.com/2022/01/has-the-great-barrington-declaration-been-vindicated/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
FAZI, Thomas; GREEN, Toby. The left’s covid failure. UnHerd, 2021. Disponível em: https://unherd.com/2021/11/the-lefts-covid-failure/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
FAZI, Thomas; GREEN, Toby. The left-wing case against vaccine mandates. UnHerd, 2022b. Disponível em: https://unherd.com/2022/01/the-left-wing-case-against-vaccine-mandates/. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
FLYNN, Dennis O.; GIRALDEZ, Arturo. China and the Spanish empire. Revista de História Económica, v. 14, n. 2, p. 309-338, 1996. Disponível em: https://bit.ly/3eGETmC. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0212610900006066
FRANK, Andre Gunder. A acumulação mundial. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar, 1977.
GOKOLUK, Selcuk. Ghana debt dips deeper into distress as investors quit. Bloomberg UK, 13 jan. 2022. Disponível em: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-01-13/ghana-debt-moves-deeper-into-distress-as-investors-lose-patience. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
GREEN, Toby; RODRIGUES, Elsa Ofélia Sequeira. Angola: the impact of lockdowns on public health. Collateral Global TV, 2022. Disponível em: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9oamsSMBFFI. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
GREEN, Toby; MONTERO, Llanos Ortíz. Collateral damage of covid policies in poor countries. Collateral Global TV, 2021. Disponível em: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=481kyqtU68o. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
GREEN, Toby; Adu-Gyamfi, Sameul. The catastrophic impact of covid lockdown policy in Ghana. Collateral Global TV, 2021. Disponível em: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aIZHCDBdNMA. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
GREEN, Toby. A fistful of shells: West Africa from the rise of the slave trade to the age of revolution. London: Allen Lane; Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2019.
GREEN, Toby. Africa and the price revolution: currency imports and socioeconomic change in west and west-central Africa during the seventeenth century. Journal of African History, v. 57, n. 1, p. 1-24, 2016.
GREEN, Toby. Covid, Lockdowns and vaccines: why Africa shouldn’t copy the west. African Arguments, 2021b. Disponível em: https://africanarguments.org/2021/04/covid-lockdowns-and-vaccines-why-africa-shouldnt-copy-the-west/ Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
GREEN, Toby. Covid-19: medicine and colonialism, past and present. Journal of Extreme Anthropology. No prelo.
GREEN, Toby. Medical colonialism: pandemic impacts and vaccine delivery. African Arguments, 2021c. Disponível em: https://africanarguments.org/2021/12/medical-colonialism-pandemic-impacts-and-vaccine-delivery /. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
GREEN, Toby. The covid consensus: the new politics of global inequality. London: C. Hurst & Co.; New York: Oxford University Press, 2021a.
GREEN, Toby. The Ebola lockdown that everyone forgot. UnHerd, 2021d. Disponível em: https://unherd.com/thepost/the-ebola-lockdown-that-everyone-forgot/ Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
GREEN, Toby. The world’s poorest countries are facing an unprecedented debt crisis UnHerd, 2022. Disponível em: https://unherd.com/thepost/the-worlds-poorest-countries-are-facing-an-unprecedented-debt-crisis/ Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
HAMILTON, Earl. American treasure and the price revolution in Spain, 1501-1650. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1934.
HOGENDORN, Jan; JOHNSON, Marion. The shell money of the slave trade. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
HOPKINS, Anthony Gerald. An economic history of West Africa. Harlow: Longmans, 1973.
HOPKINS, Anthony Gerald. An economic history of West Africa. London: Routledge, 2019.
INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION. More than 60 per cent of the world’s employed population are in the informal economy. 2018. Disponível em: https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_627189/lang--en/index.htm. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
Ioannidis, John P. A. Over and Under-estimation of covid-19 Deaths. European Journal of Epidemiology, v. 36, p. 581-588, 2021. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022. Disponível em: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10654-021-00787-9. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-021-00787-9
IYATSE, Geoff. Nigeria in crisis as debt stock hits N26t in 7 years. Guardian Nigeria, 9 jan. 2022. Disponível em: https://guardian.ng/news/nigeria-in-crisis-as-debt-stock-hits-n25t-in-7years/. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
KHAN, Aina. J. Six out of seven coronavirus cases in Africa are going undetected, the WHO says. New York Times, 14 out. 2021. Disponível em: https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/14/world/africa/covid-africa-who.html. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
KOJO, EMMANUEL. Ghana’s economy on the verge of collapse – Prof. Bokpin. Pulse Ghana, 19 jan. 2022. Disponível em: https://www.pulse.com.gh/business/ghanas-economy-on-the-verge-of-collapse-prof-bokpin/15xf55h. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
Kuroda, A. What is the complementarity among monies? An introductory note. Financial History, v. 15, n. 1, p. 7-15, 2008. Disponível em: https://bit.ly/3TqYrds. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0968565008000024
Lovejoy, Paul E. Interregional monetary flows in the precolonial trade of Nigeria. Journal of African History, v. 15, n. 4, p. 563-585, 1974. Disponível em: https://bit.ly/3g07bZE. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021853700013888
Mo Ibrahim Foundation. Africa’s first challenge: the youth bulge stuck in “waithood”, 2019. Disponível em: https://mo.ibrahim.foundation/news/2019/africas-first-challenge-youth-bulge-stuck-waithood. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
MOJEED, Abdulkareem. Despite pandemic, Africa’s billionaires 15% richer in 2021. Premium Times, 25 jan. 2022. Disponível em: https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/507655-despite-pandemic-africas-billionaires-15-richer-in-2021.html. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
Musahar, N.R. India’s Starvation Measures. New Left Review, v. 122, p. 29-34, 2020. Disponível em: https://newleftreview.org/issues/ii122/articles/india-s-starvation-measures. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
Nearly half of jobs in Africa could be lost due to coronavirus, UN warns. New Zimbabwe, 30 mar. 2020. Disponível em: https://www.newzimbabwe.com/nearly-half-of-jobs-in-africa-could-be-lost-due-to-coronavirus-un-warns/. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
NORDLING, Linda. “A ticking time bomb”: Scientists worry about coronavirus spread in Africa. Science, 15 mar. 2020. Disponível em: https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/03/ticking-time-bomb-scientists-worry-about-coronavirus-spread-africa. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
PANDEMIA aumentó 52% la riqueza de millonarios latinos, pero ahondó la pobreza: Oxfam. Forbes Colombia, 17 jan. 2022. Disponível em: https://forbes.co/2022/01/17/economia-y-finanzas/pandemia-aumento-52-la-riqueza-de-millonarios-latinos-pero-ahondo-la-pobreza-oxfam. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
REED, Sarah Orleans et al. The crisis is far from over for informal workers — we need an inclusive recovery for the majority of the world’s workforce. Nov. 2021. Disponível em: https://www.wiego.org/resources/covid-Global-policy-insights. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
RICHARDS, Paul. Ebola: how a people’s science helped end an epidemic. London: Zed Books, 2016.
RODNEY, Walter. How Europe underdeveloped Africa. Dar-es-Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House; London: Bogle L’Ouverture, 1972.
ROJAS, Mario Mendoza. Multimillonarios mexicanos sacan tajada de la pandemia: son 11% más ricos. Publimetro, 27 jan. 2022. Disponível em: https://www.publimetro.com.mx/noticias/2022/01/28/pandemia-dispara-riqueza-de-multimillonarios-mexicanos-cepal/. Acesso em: 15 de out. 2022.
ROSER, Max et al. World population growth. Our world in data [2013], 2019. Disponível em https://ourworldindata.org/world-population-growth#how-has-world-population-growth-changed-over-time. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
RUSSIA’s invasion of Ukraine is causing record-high food prices. The Economist, 8 abr. 2022. Disponível em: https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2022/04/08/russias-invasion-of-ukraine-is-causing-record-high-food-prices. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
SANDEFUR, Justin. World Bank grants for global vaccination – why so slow? Nature, v. 594, n. p. 475, 2021. Disponível em: https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-01678-5. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-01678-5. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
SIERRA Leone’s Ebola lockdown will not help, says MSF. BBC, 6 set. 2014. Disponível em: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-29096405. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022.
STIGLITZ, Joseph E. Covid has made global inequality much worse. Scientific American. 1º mar. 2021. Disponível em: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/covid-has-made-global-inequality-much-worse/. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
SUTORIS, Peter et al. (org.). Pandemic response and the cost of lockdowns: global debates from humanities and social sciences. Abingdon: Routledge, 2022.
TAMALE, Nona. Adding fuel to fire: how IMF demands for austerity will drive up inequality worldwide. OXFAM, 2021. Disponível em: http://hdl.handle.net/10546/621210. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022. Doi: https://doi.org/10.21201/2021.7864
TOOZE Adam. Shutdown: how covid shook the world’s economy. London: Allen Lane, 2021.
UNCTAD. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. EDAR-Facts and figures. UNCTAD Economic Development in Africa Report 2018. 2018. Disponível em: https://unctad.org/press-material/edar-facts-and-figures-unctad-economic-development-africa-report-2018. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
WARCHOL, Abigail. Situando a África Ocidental pré-colonial na história econômica global. Afro-Ásia, n. 64, p. 600-605, 2021. Disponível em: https://periodicos.ufba.br/index.php/afroasia/article/view/46499. Acesso em: 14 out. 2022. Doi: 10.9771/aa.v0i64.46499
WOODWARD, Alex. American billionaires added $2 trillion to their wealth during pandemic. Independent, 18 out. 2021. Disponível em: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/billionaire-money-increase-covid-pandemic-b1940590.html. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION. Non-pharmaceutical public health measures for mitigating the risk and impact of epidemic and pandemic influenza. 19 set. 2019. Disponível em: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/non-pharmaceutical-public-health-measuresfor-mitigating-the-risk-and-impact-of-epidemic-and-pandemic-influenza. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
WORLD METERS. Coronavirus. Disponível em: https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/. Acesso em: 15 out. 2022.
Publicado
Edição
Seção
Licença
Copyright (c) 2023 Toby Green; Ana Lucia Araujo
Este trabalho está licenciado sob uma licença Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Autores que publicam nesta revista concordam com os seguintes termos:- Autores mantém os direitos autorais e concedem à revista o direito de primeira publicação, com o trabalho simultaneamente licenciado sob a Licença Creative Commons Atribuição-NãoComercial (CC BY-NC) que permite o compartilhamento do trabalho sem fins lucrativos, com reconhecimento da autoria e publicação inicial nesta revista.
- Autores têm autorização para assumir contratos adicionais separadamente, para distribuição não-exclusiva da versão do trabalho publicada nesta revista (ex.: publicar em repositório institucional ou como capítulo de livro), com reconhecimento de autoria e publicação inicial nesta revista.
- Autores têm permissão e são estimulados a publicar e distribuir seu trabalho online (ex.: em repositórios institucionais ou na sua página pessoal) a qualquer ponto antes ou durante o processo editorial, já que isso pode gerar alterações produtivas, bem como aumentar o impacto e a citação do trabalho publicado (veja O Efeito do Acesso Livre).
