Marriage by convergence: state identities and the alliance between Syria and Iran
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.11606/issn.2446-5240.malala.2023.213621Keywords:
Syria, Iran, IdentityAbstract
This article examines how identities influence the creation and maintenance of the Syrian-Iranian alliance. By means of a qualitative and interpretative analysis of the specialized literature, the research analyzed three moments – the war between Iran and Iraq, the Lebanon war and the conflict in Syria – to unveil the constitutive elements of this bond. The rapprochement – and maintenance of the alliance – between Syria and Iran is guided by the complementarity of their state identities, constituting a ‘marriage by convergence.’
Downloads
References
ADAMS, Simon. “Failure to Protect: Syria and the UN Security Council”. Occasional Paper Series, n. 5, p. 1-26, 2015. Disponível em: http://www.globalr2p.org/media/files/syriapaper_final.pdf. Acesso em: 4 dez. 2023.
ADLER, Emanuel. “Constructivism in International Relations: Sources, Contributions, and Debates”. In: CARLNAES, Walter; RISSE, Thomas; SIMONS, Beth (ed.). Handbook of International Relations. 2. ed. Thousand Oaks: SAGE, 2013.
ADLER, Emanuel. “O construtivismo no estudo das relações internacionais”. Lua Nova, n. 47, p. 201-246, 1999. DOI: 10.1590/S0102-64451999000200011.
ADIB-MOGHADDAM, Arshin. Iran in World Politics: The Question of the Islamic Republic. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010.
ALAGHA, Joseph. Hizbullah’s Documents: From the 1985 Open Letter to the 2009 Manifesto. Amsterdam: Pallas, 2011.
ALIMAGHAM, Pouya. Contesting the Iranian Revolution: The Green Uprisings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.
AVON, Dominique; KHATCHADOURIAN, Anaїs-Trissa. Hezbollah: A History of the Party of God. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012
BAYAT, Asef. “The Coming of a Post‐Islamist Society”. Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies, v. 5, n. 9, p. 43-52, 1996. DOI: 10.1080/10669929608720091.
BARNETT, Michael N. “Identity and Alliances in the Middle East”. In: KATZENSTEIN, Peter J. (ed.). The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.
BICKERTON, Ian J. The Arab-Israeli Conflict: A History. London: Reaktion, 2009.
CHERNOFF, Fred. Theory and Metatheory in International Relations: Concepts and Contending Accounts. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
CONSTITUTE. “Iran (Islamic Republic of) of 1979 (rev. 1989)”. Constitute Project, [2023]. Disponível em: https://constituteproject.org/countries/Asia/Iran_Islamic_Rep_of_?lang=en. Acesso em: 4 dez. 2023.
DARWICH, May. “Ideational and Material Forces in Threat Perception: The Divergent Cases of Syria and Saudi Arabia During the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988)”. Journal of Global Security Studies, v. 1, n. 2, p. 142-156, 2016. DOI: 10.1093/jogss/ogw005.
EL-HUSSEINI, Rola. “Hizbullah and Regional Non-State Actors”. In: SHEHATA, Samer S. (ed.). Islamist Politics in the Middle East: Movements and Change. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012. p. 166-182.
EL-HUSSEINI, Rola. Hezbollah and the Axis of Refusal: Hamas, Iran and Syria. Third World Quarterly, v. 31, n. 5, p. 803–815, 2010. DOI: 10.1080/01436597.2010.502695
EHTESHAMI, Anoushiravan; HINNEBUSCH, Raymond. Syria and Iran: Middle Powers in a penetrated Regional System. London: Routledge, 1997.
FINNEMORE, Martha. National Interests in International Society. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996.
FRIEDMAN, Yaron. The Nuṣayrī-ʿAlawīs: An Introduction to the Religion, History and Identity of the Leading Minority in Syria. Leiden: Brill, 2010.
FULTON, Will; HOLLIDAY, Joseph; WYER, Sam. Iranian Strategy in Syria. United Satates of America: AEI’S Critical Threats Project/Institute for The Study of War, 2013. Disponível em: https://tinyurl.com/a95n35fd. Acesso em: 4 dez. 2012.
GOODARZI, Jubin M. Syria and Iran: Diplomatic Alliance and Power in the Middle East. London: I.B. Tauris, 2009.
GUZZINI, Stefano; LEANDER, Anna. Constructivism and International Relations: Alexander Wendt and his Critics. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
HAREL, Amos; ISSACHAROFF, Avi. 34 Days: Israel, Hezbollah, and the War in Lebanon. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
HARRIS, William. “Lebanon’s Roller Coaster Ride”. In: RUBIN, Barry (ed.). Lebanon: Liberation, Conflict, and Crisis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. p. 63-82.
HINNEBUSCH, Raymond A. Syria: Revolution from above. Abingdon: Routledge, 2005.
HINNEBUSCH, Raymond A. Authoritarian Power and State Formation in Ba’athist Syria: Army, Party, and Peasant. Boulder: Westview Press, 1990.
HUNTER, Shireen T. Iran’s Foreign Policy in the Post-Soviet Era. Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2010.
HURD, Ian. “Constructivism”. In: SNIDAL, Duncan; REUS-SMIT, Christian (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of International Relations. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. p. 298-316.
JEPPERSON, Ronald; WENDT, Alexander; KATZENSTEIN, Peter. “Norms, Identity and Culture in National Security”. In: KATZENSTEIN, Peter J. (ed.). The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.
JUNEAU, Thomas. “Iran’s Costly Intervention in Syria: A Pyrrhic Victory”. Mediterranean Politics, v. 25, n. 1, p. 1-19, 2018. DOI: 10.1080/13629395.2018.1479362.
KANDIL, Hazem. “The Challenge of Restructuring: Syrian Foreign Policy”. In: KORANY, Bahgat. The Foreign Policies of Arab States: The Challenge of Globalization. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 2008. p. 421-455.
KARSH, Efraim. The Iran-Iraque War, 1980-1988. Oxon: Osprey, 2002.
KATZENSTEIN, Peter J. (ed.), The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.
KHAMENEI, Ali. “A Congratulatory Message to Sayyid Hasan Nasrallah on the Victory of the Lebanese Islamic Resistance”. Khamenei.ir, 2 ago. 2006b. Disponível em: https://english.khamenei.ir/news/217/A-Congratulatory-Message-to-Sayyid-Hasan-Nasrallah-on-the-Victory. Acesso em: 4 dez. 2023.
KHAMENEI, Ali. “Leader Meets with Prime Minister of Syria”. Khamenei.ir, 31 ago. 2012. Disponível em: https://english.khamenei.ir/news/1676/Leader-Meets-with-Prime-Minister-of-Syria. Acesso em: 4 dez. 2023.
KHAMENEI, Ali. “Leader’s Message on Condemnation of the Zionist Regime’s Crimes in Lebanon”. Khamenei.ir, 1 ago. 2006a. Disponível em: https://english.khamenei.ir/news/218/Leader-s-Message-on-Condemnation-of-the-Zionist-Regime-s-Crimes. Acesso em: 4 dez. 2023.
KOWERT, Paul. “Toward a Constructivist Theory of Foreign Policy”. In: KUBALKOVA, Vendulka (ed.). Foreign Policy in a Constructed World. Abingdon: Routledge, 2015.
LEVITT, Matthew. Hezbollah: The Global Footprint of Lebanon’s Party of God. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2015.
MAHMOUD, Rustum; ROSINY, Stephan. “Opposition Visions for Preserving Syria’s Ethnic-Sectarian Mosaic”. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, v. 45, n. 2, p. 231-250, 2016. DOI: 10.1080/13530194.2016.1246241.
MARTIN, Vanessa. Creating an Islamic State: Khomeini and the Making of a New Iran. London: I.B. Tauris, 2003.
MIRSEPASSI, Ali. Iran’s Troubled Modernity: debating Ahmad Fardid’s legacy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019.
NORTON, Augustus Richard. Hezbollah: A Short History. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007.
NORTON, Augustus Richard. “The Peacekeeping Challenge in Lebanon”. In: YAHYA, Maha (ed.). The Sixth War: Israel’s Invasion of Lebanon. The MIT Electronic Journal of Middle East Studies, p. 76-79. Summer, 2006.
PINTO, Maria do Céu. “Nacionalismo árabe e pan-arabismo”. Observare: Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa, p. 84-85, 2016. Disponível em: http://janusonline.pt/images/anuario2015/2.15_MariaCeuPinto_pan_arabismo.pdf. Acesso em: 2 maio 2023.
PINTO, Paulo Gabriel Hilu. “Syria”. In: AMAR, Paul; PRASHAD, Vijay (ed.). Dispatches from the Arab Spring: Understanding the New Middle East. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013. p. 204-242.
SAMII, Abbas William. “A Stable Structure on Shifting Sands: Assessing the Hizbullah-Iran-Syria Relationship”. Middle East Journal, v. 62, n. 1, p. 32-53, 2008. Disponível em: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25482471. Acesso em: 4 dez. 2023.
SEALE, Patrick. Assad of Syria: The Struggle for the Middle East. London: University of California Press, 1995.
TERRILL, William Andrew. “Iran’s Strategy for Saving Asad”. The Middle East Journal, v. 69, n. 2, p. 222-236, 2015. Disponível em: https://muse.jhu.edu/article/579575/pdf. Acesso em: 4 dez. 2023.
VAN DAM, Nikolaos. Destroying a Nation: The Civil war in Syria. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2017.
VAN DAM, Nikolaos. The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society Under Assad and the Ba’ath Party. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2011.
VAN SCHAACK, Beth. “Mapping War Crimes in Syria”. Social Science Research Network Electronic Journal, v. 92, n. 282, p.1-59, 2016. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.2748776.
VOICE OF AMERICA. Syria’s Assad Says Hezbollah Victorious Against Israel. Voa News, 31 out. 2009. Disponível em: https://www.voanews.com/a/a-13-2006-08-15-voa41/320689.html. Acesso em: 4 dez. 2023.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Camila Hirt Munareto, Gabriela Santos da Silva
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Esta revista oferece acesso livre ao seu conteúdo, seguindo o princípio de que disponibilizar gratuitamente o conhecimento científico ao público proporciona maior democratização mundial do conhecimento. Não será cobrado nenhum tipo de taxa ao longo do processo de submissão de trabalhos e publicação da revista, bem como para leitura, download, cópia, distribuição, impressão, pesquisa ou referência após sua publicação. Leitores e partes interessadas são livres para compartilhar (copiar ou distribuir o material em qualquer mídia e formato) e para transformar ou adaptar partes do material desde que para uso não comercial e desde que o crédito apropriado seja dado ao autor e à Revista, indicando de que forma os dados foram utilizados e/ou manipulados.
