Métodos históricos e arqueológicos para o estabelecimento da cronologia geral do Antigo Egito faraônico

Abstract

General chronology of Pharaonic Ancient Egypt is the backbone of Egyptology. This article shows the historical and archaeological methods applied in its building.  Pharaonic Ancient Egypt starts with the unification of Upper and Low Egypt by Narmer (or Menes) about five thousand years BP and thus remain until the Roman conquest in 30 BCE. The composition of the general chronology depends on sources from distinct periods to be unified in the end. Due to the long term, each period has its idiosyncrasies. The written and material sources bring their own problems, demanding the application of specific methods. The article presents these sources: Royal Lists (epigraphy and papyrus), archaeoastronomic (records of events and temples alignments), diplomatic letters, serialization of objects, evolution of building techniques and in the use of materials, tests of thermoluminescence,  radiocarbon, dendrochronology, DNA and stratigraphic layers with volcanic ashes, as well as synchronization with chronologies of other civilizations. Then, it shows the general chronologies of Breasted (1905), Shaw (2000), Hornung et al. (2006) and Wilkinson (2010). It analyses the results of radiocarbon tests made by Ramsey et al. (2010), which suggest pushing the chronology in some decades back. It verifies criticisms like Bruin (2010) and Bietak (2013) have done about these results. Conclude that the debate is still far from be closed; however, there are available possibilities to refine the chronological detailing of each period with the application of suitable method. Lastly, the general chronologies that are now available are more reliably than those used before, but even they need be reviewed.